The Apache are of Athabascan decent and are generally
believed to have been one people group with the Navajo until the
1400's. As the Navajo adopted a radically different way of life by
raising sheep, weaving rugs, and silversmithing, they came to be
regarded as a separate tribe. The Apache and Navajo have many
similarities in language, legends (white painted woman), and
ceremonies (puberty rites). A prominent cultural trait that is
evident through their history is adaptation. This was necessary for
their survival. Over the years they have endured changes in climate
of both intense cold and desert heat, as well as the threat of
multiple enemies, developing weapons, and new modes of
transportation. They have made the transition from foot travel, to
the horse introduced in the 1680's, and eventually to the pickup
truck used today in a very different reservation life than previous
generations ever could have imagined. One of the first to leave us
written record of the Southwest was Coronado, who in 1540 passed
through the present day sites of Fort Thomas and Fort Apache and the
territory that now comprises the San Carlos and White Mountain
Apache Reservations on his unsuccessful quest for gold. He makes
little reference to any bands which might have been Apache. The
Espejo expedition in 1582 records an encounter with a band of Apache
near Mount Taylor in New Mexico.
The years, 1598-1848 characterized an
era of conflict with the Spanish and Mexicans.
The colonizing by the Spanish of the
New Mexico territory began in 1598 . The Spanish sought to conquer
and control by three methods. Depending on what worked to their
advantage, they conquered by the cross with religious
indoctrination; by the sword with presidios or forts which were
established until 1772; and by bribery which was most effective with
the Apache until their presents ceased in 1831. At this time a
rebellion followed with great looting and slaughter and the
presidios had to be reestablished.
Of the many adversaries faced by the
Mexicans among the Apache, the best known to history is Geronimo. He
was born in 1823 near the headwaters of the Gila River. He was to
cause both the Mexican and American governments much conflict, great
expense, and the loss of many lives. The first battle recorded
between Americans and Apaches took place near present day Fort
Thomas, Arizona in 1830. We only know about it today because the
Americans, unlike others, survived and lived to tell about it. With
the conflict of these very different cultures, blood was shed on
both sides. Treachery, deceit, and retaliation was commonplace among
those who hated the fierce Apache. In 1835 Apache chief, Juan Jose
was deceived by the promises of gifts and a feast offered by Johnson
and Gleason at the copper mines of Santa Rita. While seated and
eating in their camp, Juan along with most of his people were
massacred. The surviving members of the band chose Mangas Coloradas
as their new chief. He too would later be deceived by the white
man’s promises and die by their treachery. In 1837, the State of
Chihuahua pursued a public policy of genocide against all
Apaches...men, women, and children. It was during this time that
Geronimo's wife and children were slaughtered by Mexican soldiers.
Bounties were paid for Apache scalps and unfortunately black hair
was all that was required as proof. Peaceful Indians and whole
villages of Mexicans were wiped out for their scalps. These scalp
hunters known as "back yard barbers" included Mexicans, Americans,
Black runaway slaves, and other Indians, particularly of the
Delaware and Tarahumara tribes.
In 1848, the Mexican War came to an end
and the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo gave the United States the
territory north of the Gila River. Five years later the Gadsden
Purchase added additional lands south of the Gila River in 1853. The
United States not only acquired this new territory, but inherited
it's problems as well. Gold was discovered in 1848 at Sutter's Mill
in California's Sierra Madre starting the great gold rush. The
Indian people of the West were to find their life forever changed."
Within 10 years, two-thirds of an estimated 150,000 California
Indians had been annihilated." From1848 to 1900, Oregon and
California bounty hunters could collect twenty-five dollars per
head. This amount in 1850 would be the equivalent of $2500 today.
The 1850's were characterized by the
coming of more American settlers and along with them, increased
conflict resulting from the intensified clash of two very differing
ways of life, thinking patterns, and value systems. Lacking
sufficient military force to crush Apache opposition, the U.S.
government began official peace overtures in 1852.
In the1860's the total Apache
population is estimated to have numbered approximately 6000-8000
people, of which the Western Apache are thought to have numbered
around 4000. The government started issuing supplies to Apaches in
1861. The Homestead Act of 1862 was the second major event that
produced an influx of Americans in the west creating a started a
stampede for land that dwarfed the Natives living and hunting space,
and further restricted their nomadic lifestyle. Epidemics followed
the settlers coming west taking their toll on Native villages as
well.
On February 4, 1861, a tragic event
known as The Bascom Affair blew the lid off tensions that were
already at a boiling point. At Apache Pass near the area which
became the site of Fort Bowie, a young, inexperienced lieutenant
named Bascom lured and captured Cochise and his relatives under a
flag of truce. He falsely accused the chief of the Chiricahua band
of kidnaping a rancher’s son. Cochise pleaded his innocense, but to
no avail. Unable to convince his captors of his innocence, he made a
dramatic escape. His relatives, still captive, were hung by Bascom
when the rancher’s son was not produced. Cochise retaliated and set
off a decade of bloodshed. According to Herman Ehrenberger, a mining
engineer, 425 persons were killed by Apaches over a 6 year period
(1856-1862). This represented one half of the American population in
Arizona at the time.
In February 1863, Arizona was separated
from New Mexico and became an official territory. It was during this
year that the great chief Mangas Coloradas was taken prisoner by
U.S. soldiers under a flag of truce. Late at night while he tried to
sleep, the soldiers burned his feet with bayonets. When Mangas
jumped up, he was shot for "trying to escape". His head was then
boiled by the soldiers. This same year 400 Mescalero Apache were
rounded up and forced into a concentration camp at Fort Sumner, New
Mexico. To the north, the Apache’s cousin tribe, the Navajo, were
fighting for their own survival against government soldiers. Kit
Carlson conducted a campaign of destroying homes and crops. Acres of
peach orchards were burned. This scorched earth campaign resulted in
3,945 starving Navajo trekking 300 miles from Fort Defiance, Arizona
to be incarcerated with the Apache already under guard at Fort
Sumner, New Mexico. They were interned there for four years. This
tragic event in the winter of 1864 is remembered by the Navajo as
The Long Walk . The addition of the Navajo at Fort Sumner along with
an outbreak of smallpox led to an outbreak led by Victorio. Unable
to capture Victorio and his renegade band, the government promised a
permanent reservation with liveable conditions for the band at Warm
Springs. The reservation was established by Executive order in 1870
and then was later rescinded again by Executive Order.
The last treaty to be signed with any
Indian tribe by the U.S. government was on August 12, 1868 with the
Navajo of Arizona. Three years later Congress declared in 1871 that
Indian tribes would no longer be regarded as separate nations and
there would be no more treaties. The Native people were to travel a
long road of broken treaties combined with constantly changing
government policy advocating extermination, dislocation,
reservation, and assimilation. According to the Encyclopedia
International, Indian Policy of the U.S., ''Over the years
(1789-1871) the white man has made 370 treaties with the Indians and
broken every one of them.''
In 1864, a military reservation was
established for the oversight of Apache by soldiers stationed at
Camp Goodwin. The camp was operated until 1877 when malaria forced
it’s relocation to Fort Thomas four miles east.
During 1869 and 1870, it was reported
that 176 persons were killed by Apaches. Newspaper accounts were
prolific with stories of Apache bloodshed calling for total
extermination. In 1869, Brevet Col. John Green was ordered to march
from Fort Thomas with a small expeditionary force to seek out and
exterminate Apaches. He was given authority to destroy villages,
crops, food, and livestock and to engage in battle hostile Apache
bands. After burning more than 100 acres of corn, White Mountain
Apache bands living on their ancestral lands continued in their
refusal to fight. Col. Green reported to his superior that to kill
them would be nothing short of murder. He recommended that a fort be
established in the region to protect peaceful Apaches from
involvement with hostile bands and to help prevent outsiders from
exploiting the mineral deposits and arable land. In 1870, Camp
Apache was established (also called Ord, Mogollon, and Thomas at
various times until being named Fort Apache in 1879). It’s status as
a post was established by executive order of President Grant in
September 1871 and named the Camp Apache Reservation. Six years
later on February 1, 1877, the Fort Apache Military Reservation was
established by Executive Order. The original reservation extended
roughly from the Gila River in the south to the Mogollon Rim in the
north, from Cherry Creek in the west to the New Mexico border in the
east. Over the years much of the land was lost to outside interests.
The land was eventually divided into two reservations in 1897 with
land ceded to the San Carlos Apaches.
On the morning of April 30, 1871, the
tragic event known as the Camp Grant Massacre occurred. Vigilantes
traveled north from Tucson and attacked 108 peace-seeking Apaches,
who had settled with permission near the military post of Camp
Grant. The sleeping village of which only eight were men, was almost
entirely destroyed. The people were beaten, raped, murdered, and
sold into slavery. Twenty-nine children were sold into slavery. Only
six of the children were ever found again. Of those responsible for
this debacle almost 100 were Mexicans and Papago, and fifty were
Anglos from Tucson. A writer of the day, named Hunter Ingram
exclaimed, "The Apache kills on an individual basis. The white race
kills on a mass basis...they plan to wipe out whole cultures at
once." Over the years, the U.S. government has spent millions of
dollars in it’s efforts to exterminate the Apache people. The only
tribe in which the government spent more money to wage warfare was
against the Comanche.
Attempts were made in 1871 to conduct
"Peace Missions" by emissaries sent from Washington. Both Colyer and
Gen. O.O. Howard, a one-armed, Bible toting Christian visited with
various bands of Apache. Their efforts were vigorously slandered by
the "Tucson Ring,"an organized group of local businessmen who
opposed peace in the region. Their reasons were several and selfish.
First of all their army contracts were very lucrative. As long as
the government supplied rations to Indians dependent on the
government, the many corrupt agents and contractors were amassing
great wealth. Peace would mean the transfer of troops and along with
them the loss of business contracts with the government. Also,
Apache land was valuable for mining, farming, and ranching by
whites. The concept of the Apache people being self sustaining was
ridiculed and the newspapers of the day played up the fears of the
people. Pressure was put on Washington to stop such efforts and to
remove even the peaceable from their homes and crops and relocate
them to miserable land that no white man wanted.
The policy of concentrating at San
Carlos various Apache bands often hostile toward each other was
begun in 1872 to "save money in the cost of administration." This
was resisted by the Apache. The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation
was created by Executive Order on December 14, 1872. Continued and
unsuccessful efforts were made to settle the scattered bands thereon
in what can be described as concentration camp conditions. In 1874,
the control of the reservation passed from the War Department to the
Indian Bureau. Concentrated on this reservation were parts of the
bands of Coyotero, Chiricahua, San Carlos, Tonto, Yuma, and Yavapai
or Mohave Apaches. August 8, 1874 marked the arrival of John Clum at
San Carlos. His adventures are retold in the book, Apache Agent
written by Woodsworth Clum. The 22 year old served as Apache agent
until July of 1877. In the Spring of 1877, John Clum and 80 men at
Ojo Caliente, New Mexico in Warm Springs Apache country captured
Geronimo. This was the first and only time he was ever captured.
After a brief incarceration, Geronimo was released and went to
Mexico again to roam from1878 to 1880. By February of 1875, 1500
Yavapais and Tontos at Fort Verde were moved to San Carlos resulting
in 4000 Apaches crowded in onto land that originally had been home
for 800. In May of 1876, additional Apaches were brought to San
Carlos from the Chiricahua reservation after the U.S. government
reneged on it’s commitment to a reservation for the tribe. This took
place two years after the death of their chief, Cochise (June 8,
1874). Cochise and his people had been given a reservation in
exchange for having kept their word to remain peaceful. 325
Chiricahua Apache were removed to San Carlos. Of the balance of the
tribe who fled from the government soldiers, 400 escaped to Mexico
and 140 fled to join the Warm Springs Band in New Mexico. The
conditions and morale at the San Carlos Agency further deteriorated.
The agency was described by an Apache in the 1880's to have
"consisted of a few adobe buildings situated on the gravely flat
between the two streams, with a few scraggly cottonwoods offering
the only shade in a place where the temperature often reached 110
degrees or higher. Dust storms were common the year round and in all
seasons except the summer the locality swarmed with flies,
mosquitoes, gnats, and other pesky insects. The place was almost
inhabitable, but we had to stay there. The only source of
contentment that we had was that we were untroubled by the attacks
of enemies, and that the government did feed us after a fashion.
Quite a bit of strong language, both in official reports and in
later reminiscences, has been used by Army officers concerning the
way we were cheated out of our rations by unscrupulous or careless
agents."
During 1872-1873, Crook conducted what
was known as the Tonto Basin Campaign. He embarked upon a strategy
of warfare that would ultimately result in the final subjugation of
the Apache renegades. He believed that Apaches enlisted as scouts
could best wage warfare against renegade Apaches. He commenced with
his plan by enlisting 44 White Mountain and Cibecue Apaches in the
Army. With Apache scouts armed and leading the way Crook stepped up
efforts in this region against those who continued to resist. On
December 28, 1872, seventy-five Yavapai Apache were killed at Skull
[or Skeleton] Cave which is located near the present day Canyon
Lake. The remainder of the band of 2300 Apaches surrendered at Camp
Verde.
On August 30, 1881, the Battle of
Cibeque took place. Military authorities had ordered the cavalry
under the command of Col. Carr to arrest a medicine man named
Nakaidoclini who practiced ceremonies that were designed to
resurrect the dead. When he failed to accomplish the feat as
promised, he blamed the white's presence for holding the feet of the
dead down. As he was placed under arrest, shots were fired, and in
the battle, the medicine man, some of his followers, and eight
troopers were killed. This was the largest number of U.S. troops
lost in a single battle with the Apache. It was also the only time
that Apache scouts in the service of the Army turned against their
superiors in battle. The Apaches attacked Fort Apache on September
1. It is the only instance that the fort was ever attacked. Amidst
the unrest, Geronimo made his first break from the reservation in
September of 1881.
Following an Apache attack on the
mining town of McMillanville, located north of Globe, the Battle of
Big Dry Wash took place on July 17, 1882. This was the final battle
between Indian and soldier on Arizona soil. It resulted in the death
of 22 Apache and the surrender of the rest.
The years 1882-1886 are known as The
Geronimo Campaign. In September of 1882, Crook returned to Arizona
having been absent since 1875 when he had been transferred north to
fight the Sioux.. In March of 1883 news of deprivations by Chatto in
Mexico were reported. Peaches separated from the renegades and
returned to the reservation. He agreed to lead Crook into the Sierra
Madre to help capture the renegades. On May 1,1883, the Sierra Madre
Expedition commenced as General Crook campaigned with 327 men, of
which 45 were Cavalry and 193 were Apache Scouts. Nine Apaches were
killed in battle and by June 325 of 350 renegades returned to the
reservation voluntarily. In January, 1884, Chatto surrendered and
285 prisoners were taken to the reservation. 550 Apache were
eventually settled at Turkey Creek 17 miles southwest of Fort
Apache. This group included Geronimo who returned to join them in
March where he stayed peaceably until May of 1885. When he broke
from Turkey Creek, Geronimo is quoted to have said, "I am weary of
being cheated, of being treated like a dog. All the promises given
to me have turned out to be lies. I am weary of seeing my people
hungry and sick.." He left the reservation the second time along
with Naiche, Chihuahua, Nana, Mangas, and about 35-40 warriors and
80-90 women and children. They reportedly killed 76 men, women, and
children. The U.S. government deployed five thousand soldiers, which
at the time represented one fourth of the entire U.S. Army, to
pursue Geronimo's group which sometimes consisted of as few as16
warriors, 12 women, and 6 children. In addition there were 3000
Mexican soldiers pursuing Geronimo south of the border. During the
years 1885-1886, it is reported that there were ninety-five
casualties among U.S. Army soldiers and territorial citizens.
Geronimo's losses were thirteen, of which few if any were directly
due to Army action. The Apache were able to live off the land.
Having knowledge of the ancient trails, water holes, and springs,
they struck unannounced and retreated leaving no trail. The Apache
thought nothing of riding or running 75-100 miles in a day. A stolen
horse might be ridden to exhaustion and then butchered and eaten
("meals on wheels"). On March 25, 1886, General Crook’s persistent
pursuit was rewarded with a meeting with Geronimo at Canon de los
Embudos. On March 27, Geronimo agreed to surrender, but on the 28th,
he got drunk and fled. Disgusted amidst criticism of his methods
from his superiors and the press, Crook sent in his resignation on
April 1. General Miles was then appointed to replace Crook. The
governor of Sonora claimed that in the last 5 months of Geronimo's
career, his band of 16 warriors slaughtered 500-600 Mexicans. The
constant pressure of troops in the field guided by Apache scouts
ultimately led to the surrender of the remaining renegade bands.
Chihuahua's band was taken in the Fall and sent to Fort Marion in
St. Augustine, Florida. This was the first of three groups shipped
east. On September 4, Geronimo and his renegades surrendered at
Skeleton Canyon believing General Miles’ promise that they were to
be reunited with family in 5 days. They were taken to Fort Bowie,
and then on September 8, they were shipped by train to San Antonio,
Texas. After being held in prison here for several months, they were
shipped on to Florida arriving on April 13, 1886. This was the
second group of Apaches shipped out. A third group of Apache was
also shipped east. Among them were the faithful scouts that had
served the U.S. Army in bringing in Geronimo. The commander at Fort
Apache gave the order to take the belts, ammunition, guns away from
the faithful scouts. After being confines in the stable, they were
taken by wagons to the train at Holbrook, a two to three day trip.
They were shipped by train to join the others at Fort Marion. It has
been said that the Chiricahua were punished as no other U.S. Indians
have been. These men, women, and children were held captive for 27
years in Florida (1886-1887), and then Alabama (1887-1894), and then
at Fort Sill in Oklahoma (1894-1913) as prisoners of war by our
government. Geronimo died in 1909 at 85 years of age. In 1913 most
of the Chiricahua (187) were allowed to move to the Mescalero Apache
Reservation in New Mexico. Eighty-four remained at Fort Sill to
farm.
With hostilities mostly diminished, the
period known as The Reservation Era had begun and continues today.
The original purpose of the reservation to was to isolate Indians
from Whites and not Whites from Indians. Mining and ranching
interests encroached continually with the established borders of the
reservation decreased repeatedly. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was
established as part of the War Department in 1824 and transferred to
the Department of the Interior in 1849. A system of "wardship" was
established treating the Indians as immature children needing
paternalistic oversight. The Apache culture as an interdependent
society continued within the reservation, though not as the
hunter-gatherers they once had been. The welfare system was forced
on the Apache at gunpoint. Food, blankets, and rations were provided
to create a perpetual dependency upon the government and thereby
eliminate the threat they once posed to the government’s progress
and interests.
The Apache initially resisted the
government plan of subjugation during the early years by conforming
during the winter months amidst a season of scarcity only to begin
once again their raiding in the spring. Ultimately conformity had to
come even if agreement in heart did not. Their fate was sealed. They
would have to submit, be treated like children, and to forget the
dignity, honor, and pride they once knew. To leave their confinement
to live off the land as had been done for centuries would result in
again being hunted down and killed. The Apache once again relied on
their great ability to adapt.
As a part of Grant’s Peace Policy,
Missionaries were assigned by the government to oversee and bring
civilization to the Indian reservations. The Dutch Reformed Church
and Presbyterians were initially assigned to oversee most of the
tribes of the Southwest with other denominations being invited to
participate as well. The had a daunting task in educating the
Apaches. In 1892, the government made it compulsory that all Indian
children attend schools. These were usually run by the missionaries
and usually required boarding because of distances. Many mission
societies received $85 for each Indian child they enrolled. In 1896,
the government issued an order that all male Indians would wear
their hair short like Anglo men. From 1900 to 1934, by order of the
president, it was compulsory that all Indians attend Christian
religious services. These forced changes were unwelcome and
resented. The world that the Indian people had once known was
disappearing faster than could be comprehended. The year, 1895
brought the coming of the Eastern Arizona Railway Company. This
provided a 30 year agreement giving San Carlos Apaches free rail
travel. In 1901, giving in to outside pressure, the Apache leased
their land to non-Indian cattle operations. The two biggest outfits
were the Chiricahua and the Double Circle Ranch. This agreement
lasted until the 1930's. The Apaches began cattle ranching in 1910
with 500 head and became quite successful. They became known as the
Southwest’s "cowboy Indians."
In 1902, a U.S. Supreme court decision
determined that Congress had the inherent right to unilaterally
break any treaty the government signed with any American Indian
tribe.
In 1924, Congress passed a law finally
making Indians citizens of the United States. This was the first
year that Indians were allowed to vote in federal elections. In
1948, American Indians in Arizona for the first time were given the
right to vote in state elections, but only if they were literate in
English. The language provision was changed in 1970.
During the years, 1927-1930, Coolidge
Dam was constructed creating San Carlos Lake. Originally, the San
Carlos Agency buildings were located at the junction of the Gila and
San Carlos Rivers and consisted of the old buildings of the military
post. This location was abandoned in 1929 since the entire acreage
was within the San Carlos Reservoir site now known as Coolidge Dam
and the San Carlos Lake. The Agency was re-established at Rice where
a boarding school had been started in 1900. The name, "Rice" was
officially changed to "San Carlos" in 1929.
In 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act
brought about the present system of tribal government.
In 1950, the privileges of Social
Security were extended to Indians. By the 1950's, traditional
housing for the most part has been replaced by more modern housing.
Though adapting to the amenities of the white man’s way of life, the
Apache have remained resistant and individualistic. Proud of their
heritage, the Apache are still reluctant to accept the non-Indian
way of life, particularly if it is pushed on them. They live in two
worlds. They want to pick and choose their participation in both of
these worlds on their own terms. The Apache were the last Indian
people in North America to give up the traditional pattern of life
and accept supervision by military and civil authorities. They have
had to adjust in two generations from a simple economy based on a
semi-nomadic way of life to the complicated economy of modern
America. They have sought to make this transition without the
educational advantages afforded those living off the reservation.
The Apache Nation is one of 293
reservations in U.S. It is a country within a country, maintaining a
sovereign nation status as a tribal government with oversight by the
Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, composed of
bureaucrats, continues to spend one billion dollars annually to
insure that poverty continues as an institution among the American
Indian. Only 10% of funds designated for Indians handled by the
B.I.A. actually reaches the Indian people. James Watt, Secretary of
the Interior under President Reagan, said that the reservation
system today represents the end results of socialism. Economically
and socially Native Americans are at the bottom of almost any
statistical report. They have one of the highest birthrates in the
nation yet, they are twice as likely to die of murder, six times as
likely to die from alcohol, and have a ten times higher suicide
rate. Unemployment on many reservations is over 60%. In spite of the
obstacles, the Apache are survivors. Though they are a people
isolated culturally, linguistically, geographically, by illiteracy,
and by their tribal and clan diversity, they continue to face the
challenges of life as they have historically...with a warriors
spirit!
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